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Topic 1: Teacher recruitment, hiring, and retentionAdministrators of immersion programs must recruit and hire staff who can successfully teach a district’s elementary curriculum or secondary subject areas in the target language of the school. This requires exceptional proficiency in the language of instruction in addition to classroom management skills, content area expertise, and knowledge of second language acquisition and content-based language instruction. How do administrators find such candidates? Literature and Research Review
Practitioner Perspectives
The Immersion Teacher ShortageBecause immersion education as a public school educational alternative has been more prevalent in Canada than in the U.S., much of the research in the area of teacher recruitment and retention comes from Canadian French immersion contexts. Macfarlane and Hart (2002), for example, found that 67 percent of British Columbia school boards had “many fewer than needed” French immersion teachers. Obadia and Martin (1995) reported similar findings. In their study, surveyed districts that indicated having sufficient numbers of candidates attributed this to: (1) high-quality teacher development programs at local universities, (2) teacher recruitment early in the year, and (3) proximity to French-speaking communities. Even four decades post inception of French immersion education, Veilleux and Bournot-Trites (2005) report that an immersion teacher shortage exists particularly in rural areas. In the U.S., foreign language immersion program administrators
also decry the lack of adequately prepared teacher candidates and
its impact on the development of existing as well as newly implemented
programs (Met & Lorenz, 1997; Coffman, 1992). As a principal,
Coffman (1992) argues that locating dual language proficient, highly
qualified immersion teachers is the single most important and difficult
challenge in building an effective language immersion program. His
experience-based sentiments are frequently echoed by practicing
immersion administrators across the country. To complicate the matter
further, there tends to be significant teacher turnover in immersion
schools for a variety of reasons, so building and keeping a talented
teaching staff and providing for their ongoing professional enrichment
remain constant concerns. Immersion teacher shortages impact indigenous immersion programs (e.g., Hawaiian, Diné, Yup'ik, Ojibwe) most profoundly since the majority of these teachers are themselves second language learners of the immersion language (Hermes, 2004; Slaughter, 1997). Immersion programs in which the immersion language is a less commonly taught language (LCTL) such as Mandarin, Japanese, Russian, or Arabic in the U.S. also experience the scarcity of qualified teachers more deeply. In contrast to the dire circumstances encountered in some indigenous and LCTL immersion programs, survey research on two-way immersion (TWI) teachers presents a welcome contrast. Howard and Loeb (1998) found that over half of surveyed TWI teachers held bilingual certificates in addition to grade-level licenses. Moreover, 41% already held, and an additional 28% were currently pursuing, graduate-level degrees. Similarly, Lindholm-Leary (2001) found that TWI teachers from her study were more often specially certified in both bilingual education and English as a second language, and had greater proficiency in the non-English language than teachers in more typical U.S. bilingual program models (e.g, transitional bilingual education). While staffing TWI programs can still be a challenge depending on local context, many TWI programs are situated in areas of the U.S. with greater numbers of bilingual individuals and a decades-long history of bilingual programming. This combination of factors offers some TWI teachers the ability to earn specialized bilingual certificates in established programs through the local university (see, for example, Pérez, 2004). Several U.S. states, among them Texas, New Mexico and California, have similar university-school partnerships that continually strive to meet the TWI teacher demand. Immersion Teaching Demands a Uniquely Specialized Skill SetMet (1989) cogently discussed the highly demanding task of immersion teaching as a subset of elementary teaching by describing it as "over and above the over and above" (p. 181). Immersion teachers function both as elementary teachers of all core subjects and second language teachers. They are accountable for preparing learners for achievement success on standardized tests given in English and for developing language and literacy skills in the immersion language during the same amount of instructional time as non-immersion teachers. To effectively accomplish this dual task Veilleux and Bournot-Trites (2005) and others argue that immersion teachers need a high level of immersion language competency. Without this, their ability to plan and deliver quality content-based language lessons, express their ideas articulately, model native-like language use, and offer students accurate feedback will be impacted. In addition to maintaining high standards for teacher's language proficiency, more and more researchers suggest that the way in which language and content are consciously co-structured within the immersion classroom may well be the determining factor in reaching high expectations for language production as well as quality academic experiences (Fortune, Tedick & Walker, in press, Hoare & Kong, in press; Lyster, 2007; Swain, 1996). Immersion teachers' understanding of a pedagogical "third way," that in French immersion researcher André Obadia's words, "differs from French second-language and first-language teaching" (Obadia, 1985, p. 415) makes up another important aspect of an immersion teacher's unique skill set. A read of the research literature suggests that the "ideal" immersion teaching candidate would have all of the following:
Licensure DilemmasFinding licensed elementary teachers and licensed secondary content area teachers that also have the requisite proficiency and pedagogical skills is very difficult. Often teaching candidates are either licensed or highly language proficient. However, the five teacher applicant profiles described below are far more likely to be encountered by immersion administrators: Teacher Applicant Profile #1:
Licensure Dilemma: A commonly held misperception is that a K-12 licensure in the immersion language will suffice. However, to be an immersion teacher one must be licensed for the particular grade levels and/or content specialty they plan to teach. For example, to teach in an elementary immersion program individuals need an elementary license; to teach science at the secondary level a person needs a secondary license in the discipline of science. At times licensed, immersion language proficient teachers apply for an immersion teaching position, only they are licensed as language not elementary teachers. In some cases they are hired provisionally for a pre-determined period of time. During this time, the practicing teachers will need to return to school and earn an additional grade-level appropriate license. Once the licensure is in place, it is highly advisable that the teacher continues their education with professional development in immersion pedagogy and diversity or equity education. Teacher Applicant Profile #2:
Licensure Dilemma: Some licensed teachers are native speakers of the immersion language, however, they frequently hold licensure from abroad. Such a license typically requires review by the local state's Board of Teaching and additional U.S. coursework prior to approval for teaching in the U.S. Teacher development programs vary widely from one country to another. In many cases native speakers who were educated in their home country are also unfamiliar with U.S. educational principles and practices as well as the classroom culture typical of U.S. schools. These needs are sometimes met informally within the school over time, in other cases, teachers attend university classes to enhance their understanding of U.S. education. Once the licensure is in place, it is highly advisable that the teacher continues her education with professional development in immersion pedagogy and diversity or equity education.
Licensure Dilemma: Others who express interest in being an immersion teacher are unlicensed native speakers. Michael Bacon, Portland Public Schools' Immersion Coordinator, reports having access to highly educated bilinguals who unfortunately lack licensure and experience with schooling in the U.S. (Kennedy Manzo, 2006). These individuals will need to work with the state's local Board of Teaching in the Department of Education to explore acceptable ways of acquiring a teaching license. Increasingly, many states are expanding the number of paths to becoming a licensed teacher to more effectively draw upon the existing expertise of community members. In many cases native speakers who were educated in their home country are also unfamiliar with U.S. educational principles and practices as well as the classroom culture typical of U.S. schools. These needs are sometimes met informally within the school over time; in other cases, teachers attend university classes to enhance their understanding of U.S. education. Once the licensure is in place, it is highly advisable that the teacher continues her education with professional development in immersion pedagogy and diversity or equity education. Teacher Applicant Profile #4
Licensure Dilemma: Veilleux & Bournot-Trites (2005) report that one-third of Canadian school boards surveyed expressed difficulty in attracting licensed French immersion teachers with the appropriate level of proficiency for the position. Individual administrators are typically left to decide how to assess the teaching candidate's level of language proficiency and immersion teaching skill set, tasks for which many find themselves unequipped. In difficult hiring situations with few candidates, Macfarlane and Hart (2002) found a growing temptation by administrators to hire less qualified language teachers. However, by lowering language proficiency standards, immersion learners’ quality of education may be impaired. French language teacher educators in Western Canada have recently made use of “The Language Portfolio Project” as an additional means to encourage university students to increase awareness of their second language development during the 4-year French teacher education program. A number of these teachers will go on to teach in French immersion classrooms and by their fourth year must be able to meet the programs’ minimum oral proficiency level of “Avancé moyen,” which these authors compare to “Advanced Mid” on the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines (Christiansen & Laplante, 2004, p. 440). While the project clearly needs to be modified before it is able to succeed with its goals, Christiansen & Laplante’s (2004) study of project participant experiences did indicate that for students “this may well have been the first time they were actually encouraged and able to discuss their second language (L2) development with one another” (p. 451). Elevating teacher educators’ and students’ awareness of the need to meet both pedagogical and language development objectives within teacher licensure programs is an idea that merits continued support and attention, in particular, when the teachers plan to enter language immersion settings. Once the licensure is in place, it is highly advisable that the teacher continues her education with professional development in immersion pedagogy and diversity or equity education. Teacher Applicant Profile #5
Licensure Dilemma: Even if one finds an appropriately licensed teacher who is also native-like in the language of instruction, the particular skill set required to integrate and balance language and content successfully will still need to be developed. In addition, an understanding of linguistically and culturally diverse learners and building equitable classroom communities remains key. It is therefore highly advisable that the teacher continues her education with professional development in immersion pedagogy and diversity or equity education. Skill Set High, Numbers of Teacher Education Programs LowWhile the skill set needed is indeed highly specialized, the university-level teacher education demand for this specialty is relatively low when compared with other areas such as elementary education or K-12 Spanish. As a result coherent immersion teacher education programs in the U.S. are almost non-existent, the exception being the Kahuawaiola Indigenous Teacher Education Program at the University of Hawaii-Hilo (Wilson & Kawai'ae'a, in press). Two-way immersion programs in areas where many bilingual programs have existed for decades (e.g., California, Texas, New Mexico, etc.) have greater access to bilingual, elementary-licensed teachers who may have also acquired some kind of bilingual certificate such as California's Bilingual Cross-Cultural, Language, and Academic Development (CLAD/BCLAD) certificate. Nevertheless, these programs were designed to meet the needs of language minority learners and do not typically take into account the body of literature that addresses language majority learners in immersion contexts whether in one-way, two-way, or indigenous immersion programs. Moreover, bilingual certificate programs as originally designed are unlikely to specifically address the needs of immersion program models. The ability of colleges of education to create new licensure or certificate programs is related in part to the numbers of participants these programs will attract. Until a critical mass of interested individuals develops in a given location, universities are unlikely to be able to support such a new teacher education initiative. At the University of Minnesota, for example, the College of Education and Human Development's Department of Curriculum and Instruction presently offers the only Dual Language and Immersion Certificate Program in the country. The development of this certificate program is linked to the rapid growth of dual language immersion programs in Minnesota as well as the strong university-K-12 immersion schools partnership. To learn more about this program, see http://www.education.umn.edu/SPS/programs/certificates/LanguageImmersion.html Strategies Used to Attract and Retain Immersion TeachersObadia & Martin (1995) gathered questionnaire data based on telephone interviews with representatives of 22 school districts and all ministries of education in Canada. One aspect of the study specifically addressed the question of attracting and retaining French immersion teachers. They found that the two most frequently used approaches to teacher recruitment were through (1) direct contact with faculties of education and (2) newspaper ads targeting both in- and out-of-province print media. Other commonly mentioned ways to attract new teachers involved practicing teachers taking on student teachers and traveling to interview prospective candidates elsewhere. Montgomery County (MD) Public Schools, home to one of the oldest foreign language immersion programs in the U.S. reports their teacher recruitment efforts have included interviewing throughout the U.S., informal networking among parents and current staff members, and engaging in cooperative efforts with embassies and other agencies located in Washington, D.C. (Met & Lorenz, 1993). More recently, Met & Lorenz (1997) also suggested looking for potential immersion teaching candidates in a district’s current foreign language teacher pool and native-speaking teachers from abroad. Once found, how do programs hold on to talented immersion educators? As in all professions, some teachers will choose to leave the classroom to pursue other professional options and interests. A program’s inability to retain teachers is expensive. According to Norton (1999), districts can pay up to 25% of teachers’ annual salaries to replace them with new employees. Boe, Bobbit and Cook (1997) also addressed recruitment and replacement costs of teachers in terms of time and money for school district employees. In short, when qualified classroom teachers leave, a lot of money is invested to replace them. Because of this, district administrators find it more cost effective to retain qualified, competent teachers. In immersion settings where supply often falls short of demand, holding on to high-quality teachers is even more critical. According to Obadia & Martin (1995), over a quarter of surveyed districts reported difficulties retaining French immersion staff. The source of the difficulties varied. Most of the problems reported were related to personal issues such as a teacher’s desire to start a family, missing their home community and lack of a social life, culture shock and lack of adequate English skills for native French speakers. A few districts indicated that teachers left immersion because of the demanding work environment. Measures used to retain immersion teachers involved providing various supports such as “assistance from coordinators, consultants, orientation sessions, professional development opportunities, in-services, curriculum resources, and flexibility of transfers and leaves of absence” (p. 92). Beyond program- and district-based supports, some districts also offered outside-of-school assistance to help teachers transition to the new community and move. Finally, a couple of districts mentioned taking into consideration a teacher’s commitment to and likelihood of staying prior to hiring them. Selected References and Recommended ReadingsBoe, E., Bobbitt, S., & Cook, L. (1997). Why didst thou go? Predictors of retention, transfer, and attrition of special and general education teachers from a national perspective. Journal of Special Education, 30, 390-411. Christiansen, H., & Laplante, B. (2004). Second language pre-service teachers as learners: The language portfolio project. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 60 (4), 439-455. Coffman, Roger. (1992). Immersion: A principal’s perspective. In Elizabeth B. Bernhardt (Ed.) Life in language immersion classrooms (pp. 154-170). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. Fortune, T., Tedick, D., & Walker, C. (in press). Integrated language and content teaching: Insights from the language immersion classroom. In T. Fortune, D. Tedick (Eds.), Pathways to Multilingualism: Evolving perspectives on immersion education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. Hermes, M. (2004). Starting an indigenous immersion school: The
gut-wrenching start- Hoare, P., & Kong, S. (in press). Late Immersion in Hong Kong: Still Stressed or Making Progress? In T. Fortune, D. Tedick (Eds.), Pathways to Multilingualism: Evolving perspectives on immersion education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. Howard, E. R., & Loeb, M. (1998). In their own words: Two-way immersion teachers talk about their professional experiences (ERIC Digest EDO-FL-98-14). Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. Available: http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/intheirownwords.html Kennedy Manzo, K. (2006). Students taking Spanish, French; Leaders pushing Chinese, Arabic. Education Week, 26, 20-25. Lindholm-Leary, K.J. (2001). Dual language education. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, Ltd. Lyster, R. (2007). Learning and teaching languages through content: A counterbalanced approach. Philadelphia, PA: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Macfarlane, A. & Hart, D. (2002). Shortages of French as a second language teachers: Views of school districts, faculties of education and ministries of education. Ottawa, Canada: Canadian Parents for French. Met, M.& Lorenz, E. (1993). Preparing global citizens: A foreign language program for all students [case study]. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Met, M. & Lorenz, E. (1997). Lessons from U.S. immersion programs: Two decades of experience. In Johnson, R. & Swain, M (Eds.), Immersion education: International Perspectives (pp. 243-264). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Norton, M. S. (1999). Teacher retention: Reducing costly teacher turnover. Contemporary Education, 70(3). Obadia, A. A. (1995). What is so special about being an immersion teacher? In M. Buss & C. Lauren (Eds.). Language immersion: Teaching and second language acquisition. Proceedings of the University of Vaasa Research Papers, Tutkimuksia No. 192 (pp. 73-95). Vaasa, Finland: University of Vaasa. Obadia, A.A. & Martin, M. (1995). French immersion teacher shortage: Seeing the light at the end of the tunnel. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(1), 81-100. Pérez, B. (2004). Becoming biliterate: A study of two-way bilingual immersion education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Slaughter, H. (1997) Indigenous language immersion in Hawai’i: A case study of Kula Kaiapuni Hawai’i. In R. Johnson and M. Swain (eds.) Immersion education: International perspectives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swain, M. (1996). Integrating language and content in immersion classrooms: Research perspectives. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 52(4), 529-548. Veilleux, I. & Bournot-Trites, M. (2005). Standards for the language competence of French immersion teachers: Is there a danger of erosion? Canadian Journal of Education, 28, 487-507. Virginia State Dept. of Education, Richmond. (1994). Feasibility study of statewide implementation of the Fairfax County elementary language immersion program. Report of the Virginia Department of Education to the governor and General assembly of Virginia. House document no. 26. U.S.: Virginia. Wilson, W. H., & Kawai’ae’a, K. (in press). I kumu; i ll: “Let there be sources; let there be branches”: Teacher education in the college of Hawaiian language. To be included in a forthcoming special issue of the Journal of American Indian Education on culturally responsive education for American indigenous students. What challenges surface in immersion recruitment, hiring and retention?
What is the necessary licensure or certification for becoming a language immersion teacher?There is no licensure for immersion teaching. Administrators ideally look for candidates with native or near native fluency in the target language and in English, elementary or content area secondary certification, and an understanding or familiarity with immersion pedagogy.
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